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非线性射频和微波器件表征、建模和设计 X参数理论基础

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非线性射频和微波器件表征、建模和设计 X参数理论基础

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本书由浅入深、系统地介绍了非线性静态与动态X参数的概念和原理以及它们的测量、建模和设计应用实例。全书共6章。第1章对线性S参数理论做了简明回顾;第2、3、4章系统介绍在大信号单音激励下,静态非线性X参数的基本理论、数学形式及参数的物理意义,测量与仿真平台,以及模型参数提取方法和应用实例;第5章介绍在大信号双音和多音激励下,静态非线性X参数的基本理论、数学形式及参数的物理意义;第6章介绍如何将静态非线性X参数扩展到动态非线性X参数理论,及其实验方案、模型记忆、辨识实例和有效性检验手段。
Author Description

David E. Root,安捷伦科技有限公司研究员。他通过商业化运作,合作领导了Agilent(安捷伦科技有限公司)X参数的研究和开发。他是IEEE 会士,并与他人合作编著了专著Nonlinear Transistor Model Parameter Extraction Techniques (2011)。 Jan Verspecht 安捷伦科技公司主任研究工程师,IEEE 会士,于2006 年发明了X 参数。 Jason Horn 安捷伦科技有限公司资深设计工程师,致力于X参数测量的开发。 Mihal Marcu 安捷伦科技有限公司高级顾问,致力于非线性建模X参数的开发与应用。

林茂六,哈尔滨工业大学电子与信息工程学院二级教授,博士生导师。中国电子学会高级会员,IEEE高级会员。中国电子学会电子测量与仪器分会理事,电子测量与仪器学报编委。研究方向为信息测量理论,非均匀采样信号理论及应用,视频信号处理和无线系统的非线性表征、建模与设计。

苟元潇,1988年出生,2015年获得哈尔滨工业大学博士学位。研究方向为NANV相关领域,包括宽带谐波相位参考设计与定标、微波测量理论以及基于测量的非线性行为模型等。卢鑫 , 1986年出生,2013年获得英国华威大学博士学位,现聘任为哈尔滨工业大学讲师,硕士研究生导师。研究方向为非线性测量理论、视频编码标准、数据压缩以及图像和视频信号处理等。
Catalogue

第1章 S参数的简要回顾 1
1.1 引言 1
1.2 参数 1
1.3 波变量 2
1.4 S参数的测量 6
1.5 S参数是一种频谱映射 7
1.6 叠加 8
1.7 S参数所描述元件的时不变性 9
1.8 级联性 10
1.9 直流工作点 12
1.10 非线性器件的S参数 12
1.11 S参数的附带优势 15
1.11.1 S参数适合高频上的分布参数元件 15
1.11.2 在高频上S参数易于测量 15
1.11.3 二端口S参数的解释 15
1.11.4 用S参数进行分层行为设计 16
1.12 S参数的局限性 16
1.13 总结 17
习题 17
参考文献 18
补充阅读材料 18
第2章 X参数的基本概念 19
2.1 概述 19
2.2 非线性行为和非线性频谱映射 19
2.3 多谐波频谱映射 21
2.4 负载和源失配效应 23
2.5 级联DUT 24
2.6 实例:两个带有独立偏置的RF功率放大器的级联 26
2.7 与谐波平衡的关系 28
2.8 交叉频率相位 28
2.8.1 同量信号 28
2.8.2 交叉频率相位的定义 29
2.9 多谐波多端口激励的基本X参数 32
2.9.1 Fp,k(?)函数的时不变性及相关特性 33
2.9.2 X参数的定义和行为模型 34
2.9.3 实例:X参数集 35
2.10 基本X参数的物理含义 36
2.10.1 参考激励和响应 36
2.10.2 物理含义 37
2.11 使用X参数行为模型 37
2.11.1 实例:源和负载失配的放大器 38
2.12 总结 41
习题 41
参考文献 42
补充阅读材料 42
第3章 频谱线性化近似 43
3.1 微弱失配时基本X参数的简化 43
3.1.1 非解析映射(Non-analytic Maps) 44
3.1.2 大信号工作点(Large-signal Operating Point) 46
3.2 加入小信号激励(非线性频谱映射线性化) 48
3.2.1 小信号交互:射频项 49
3.2.2 小信号交互:直流项 50
3.3 小信号交互项的物理含义 52
3.4 讨论:X参数和频谱的雅可比(Jacobian)行列式 57
3.5 X参数是S参数的超集 57
3.6 两级放大器设计 62
3.7 大信号激励下的放大器匹配 65
3.7.1 输出匹配及hot-S22 65
3.7.2 输入匹配 74
3.8 实例:一个GSM放大器 76
3.9 总结 79
习题 80
参考文献 82
补充阅读材料 82
第4章 X参数的测量 83
4.1 硬件测量平台 83
4.1.1 硬件测量要求 83
4.1.2 基于混频器的测量系统 83
4.1.3 基于采样器的测量系统 86
4.1.4 激励信号要求 87
4.2 校准 88
4.2.1 标量损耗修正 88
4.2.2 S参数校准 89
4.2.3 NVNA校准 90
4.3 相位参考 91
4.3.1 相位参考信号 92
4.3.2 测量注意事项 93
4.3.3 实际相位参考信号 94
4.4 测量技术 95
4.4.1 大信号响应测量 95
4.4.2 小信号响应测量 96
4.4.3 实际测量考量 98
4.4.4 基于仿真的X参数提取 100
4.5 X参数文件 100
4.5.1 结构 100
4.5.2 命名规则 101
4.5.3 文件实例 102
4.6 总结 104
参考文献 104
补充阅读材料 104
第5章 多音及多端口X参数 105
5.1 引言 105
5.2 同量信号――大信号A1,1和A2,1:负载相关X参数 106
5.2.1 时不变、相位归一化及同量双音大信号工作点 107
5.2.2 频谱线性化 108
5.3 利用负载调谐器建立大信号工作点:无源负载牵引 109
5.4 同量信号的其他考虑事项 111
5.4.1 在受控负载下提取X参数函数 111
5.4.2 谐波叠加原理 111
5.4.3 无源负载牵引下负载相关X参数的局限性 111
5.4.4 三射频自变量空间定义的参考大信号工作点采样 112
5.4.5 负载相关X参数硬件测量平台 112
5.4.6 校准修正不可控谐波阻抗 113
5.5 GaAs工艺FET晶体管在任意阻抗下的负载相关X参数 113
5.5.1 GaN工艺HEMT的负载相关X参数模型:估计单独调谐
谐波阻抗的影响 115
5.6 设计实例:Doherty功率放大器的设计与有效性检验 121
5.6.1 Doherty功率放大器 121
5.6.2 晶体管的X参数表征 122
5.6.3 X参数模型的有效性检验 123
5.6.4 利用X参数设计Doherty功率放大器 126
5.6.5 设计结果 128
5.7 非同量信号 129
5.7.1 非同量双音(two-tone)X参数的符号 129
5.7.2 非同量双音X参数的时不变性 130
5.7.3 参考大信号工作点 132
5.7.4 频谱线性化 132
5.7.5 讨论 134
5.7.6 负频率互调成分 134
5.7.7 混频器的X参数模型 135
5.8 总结 137
习题 138
参考文献 138
补充阅读材料 139
第6章 记忆效应和动态X参数 140
6.1 引言 140
6.2 已调信号:包络域 140
6.3 在包络域中的准静态X参数的估计 141
6.3.1 从静态单音X参数模型描述准静态双音(two-tone)互调失真 142
6.3.2 利用准静态法估计ACPR 147
6.3.3 静态法的一些局限性 149
6.3.4 数字调制中准静态X参数的优点 149
6.4 记忆效应的表现 150
6.5 记忆效应的起因 151
6.5.1 自热 151
6.5.2 偏置调制 152
6.6 记忆效应的重要性 155
6.6.1 调制引入的基带记忆和载波记忆 155
6.6.2 动态X参数 156
6.6.3 记忆核辨识:概念的起因 159
6.6.4 记忆核的阶跃响应 160
6.6.5 应用于真实放大器 161
6.6.6 记忆模型的有效性检验 163
6.6.7 动态X参数的解释 167
6.6.8 宽带X参数(XWB) 168
参考文献 173
补充阅读材料 174
附录A 符号和通用定义 175
A.1 集合 175
A.2 矢量和矩阵 175
A.3 信号表示 176
A.3.1 时域信号(实信号) 176
A.3.2 复表示(复包络信号) 176
A.4 傅里叶分析 177
A.5 波定义 178
A.5.1 广义功率波 178
A.5.2 电压波 180
A.6 线性网络矩阵描述 180
A.6.1 S参数 181
A.6.2 Z参数 181
A.6.3 Y参数 181
附录B X参数和Volterra理论 182
B.1 引言 182
B.2 数学符号与问题定义 182
B.3 Volterra理论的应用 183
B.4 麦克劳林级数的推导 184
B.5 直流输出的麦克劳林级数 185
B.6 结论 186
附录C 并行Hammerstein 模型的对称性 187
附录D 宽带记忆近似 189
附录E 习题解答 191

Introduction

A Letter to Chinese Reader
Dear readers,
My co-authors and I highly appreciate your interest in our book on X-parameters. We are honoured by the fact that the book is now available in Mandarin. The short term goal of this book is to demystify X-parameter technology and to introduce its use to the RF and microwave engineers.
But even more important is the goal on the long term. We hope that this book inspires you to perform further research in the field of measurements and modelling for high-frequency active devices.
It has been a long journey from inventing X-parameters to having the book on the topic published in the People's Republic of China. I presented the first paper on the technology in October 1996 at the 4th International Workshop on Integrated Nonlinear Microwave and Millimeterwave Circuits (Duisburg, Germany). This milestone paper was entitled "Black Box Modelling of Power Transistors in the Frequency Domain". It introduced the necessary theory, hardware and software to make X-parameters work: a theory on linearization coefficients for multi-harmonic spectral mapping operators, a hardware setup with the capability to measure the phase of harmonics and to excite the device-under-test simultaneously with large signal as well as small signal tones (now available as the NVNA option for the PNA-X of Keysight Technologies), and a software link to run the resulting behavioural model in a harmonic balance simulator environment (now available in the Advanced Design System simulator available from Keysight Technologies). Several conference and journal papers soon followed. In 2001 I was offered the opportunity to present this work at the Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT). I was received with the utmost honour by Prof. Lin Mao Liu and his colleagues and I have fond memories from my trip to the People's Republic of China. A couple of years later my co-authors, their colleagues at Agilent Technologies and myself started development efforts towards a commercial product. In 2008 the technology was commercially introduced by Agilent Technologies under the name "X-parameters" (registered trademark of Keysight Technologies). By that time information on the technology was scattered across many different scientific papers. Throughout the years many different naming conventions and mathematical notations had been used to explain and even extend the technology. As such there was a need for a book as a single complete, actual and coherent source of information. The book was first published in 2013. In 2015 we were honoured to learn that there was a demand to translate the book into Mandarin. We are very grateful to Prof. Lin Mao Liu for providing help with this effort and for finding and correcting a couple of minor errors that went undetected in the original English edition.
We wish you a great reading and a very successful continuation of your career in electrical engineering!
Dr. Jan Verspecht, IEEE Fellow
致中国读者的一封信
亲爱的读者:
欣闻X参数一书的中文版即将出版,我们深感荣幸。本人及合著同仁借此机会,对关心此书的各位读者致以衷心的感谢。
编撰此书的最初目的旨在向射频和微波工程师揭开X参数技术的神秘面纱并介绍其功能。但是我们更看重的长远目标是:希望此书能够激发读者在高频有源器件的测量和建模领域中创造出更多的研究成果。
从发明X参数到在中国用中文出版此书经历了漫长的过程。本人于1996年10月在德国杜伊斯堡举行的第四届集成非线性微波与毫米波电路国际研讨会上发表了第一篇关于该技术的论文。这篇里程碑式的论文的题目是Black Box Modelling of Power Transistors in the Frequency Domain。该论文提出了进行X参数研究时所必要的理论、硬件和软件:关于多谐波频谱映射算子的线性化系数理论;一种具有能同时用大信号和小信号激励被测器件和测量谐波相位能力的硬件装置[现在作为是德科技有限公司(2014年成立于原安捷伦科技电子测量事业部,现独立运营)的PNA-X的NVNA选件];在谐波平衡仿真环境下运行得到最终行为模型的软件链接[现可从是德科技有限公司的先进设计系统(ADS)仿真器中获得]。不久之后,发表了一系列的会议和期刊论文。
2001年,我非常荣幸地收到了哈尔滨工业大学(HIT)林茂六教授及其同仁的访问邀请。这为我提供了一次在哈尔滨工业大学介绍该成果的机会。那次中国之旅给我留下了美好的回忆。
几年之后,本书的合著者和他们在安捷伦科技公司的同事以及本人开始致力于商用产品开发。2008年,安捷伦科技有限公司以“X参数”命名(现为是德科技有限公司注册商标)将这项技术做商业化推介。此时,有关这项技术的信息发表在多个不同的科技论文中。多年来,许多不同的命名惯例和数学符号被用于解释甚至扩充这项技术。鉴于此,需要一本书作为唯一完整的、准确的、条理清晰的信息源头。本书英文版于2013年出版。2015年,我们很荣幸地获悉,有把这本书翻译成中文的需求。
我们对林茂六教授为此所做出的努力以及他发现并更正了在英文原版书中被疏忽的若干小错误,深表感激。
祝愿你们阅读愉快并在电气工程中更成功地谱写自己的职业生涯。
Jan Verspecht博士,IEEE会士
译 者 序
正像20世纪70年代S参数曾使线性射频和微波电路工程发生革命性的变革一样,今天X参数将使非线性射频和微波电路工程设计发生更为深刻的革命性变革。
本书是英国剑桥大学出版社出版的射频和微波工程系列图书之一。
本书的撰稿人共4位。他们都是原安捷伦科技有限公司Worldwide Process and Technology中心的科学家,David E. Root和Jan Verspecht又都是IEEE会士,是非线性射频和微波元件及其子系统的新规范——X参数的原创发明者。这一发明从理念提出、模型建立、测量平台构建、模型有效性检验、工程应用到专著出版经历了17年。中国有句古语叫“十年磨一剑”。而X参数的发明可谓“二十年磨一剑”!
全书共6章。第1章对线性S参数理论进行简明回顾。第2章至第4章由浅入深、系统地介绍在大信号单音激励下,表征射频和微波二端口网络谐波失真的静态非线性X参数的基本理论、数学形式及参数(能量相互转换)的物理意义,X参数与传统的S参数的相互联系,静态X参数测量与仿真平台和模型参数的提取方法,在射频微波功率器件和无线基站设计中的应用实例。第5章系统地介绍在大信号双音(two-tone)和多音(multi-tone)激励下,表征射频和微波多端口网络(如调制解调器)互调失真的静态非线性X参数的基本理论、数学形式及参数(能量相互转换)的物理意义。第6章介绍如何将静态非线性X参数扩展到考虑了射频微波器件强非线性和长期记忆效应的动态非线性X参数理论、实验方案、模型记忆核辨识实例及有效性检验手段,并介绍消除或降低记忆效应的射频微波功率器件和无线基站设计中的应用实例。
本书内容新颖、理论严谨、应用背景明确、条理清晰、图文并茂。所有图表和曲线都能很好地帮助读者理解物理概念,所用数学难度适中。本书既注重基本原理和基本理论的阐述,又注重实验测量与实践应用的相结合,其应用实践与现代通信技术的研发联系十分紧密。因此,这是一部学习X参数理论基础的权威著作。对推动我国电气工程高年级本科生或研究生教学改革,提升从事射频微波工程和现代通信技术前沿研究的研发人员、工程师、科学家的创新能力有重要参考价值。
在翻译过程中,译者对原著中的极少数笔误和疏漏之处进行了修正。为了保留英文原版的写作风格,防止增加不必要的错误,本书的部分符号与原著保持一致。
本书由林茂六教授翻译第1章、第6章和附录A、C、D、E,苟元潇博士翻译第4章和第5章,卢鑫博士翻译第2章,孙金龙博士翻译第3章和附录B。林茂六教授负责全书的审校。
完成这种全新理论专著翻译的挑战大大超越了我们的预想。为此,在翻译过程中,为尽量确保译文精准,我们曾致函本专著第二作者、译者的老朋友Jan Verspecht 博士,就一些非线性X参数的新概念、新思想和某些精巧实验方案设计予以请教,Jan Verspecht 博士都及时为我们解答。更让我们高兴的是,在本书中文版即将出版之际,他于百忙中,抽时间专门为中文读者写了一封热情洋溢的致读者信。在此,谨致以最衷心的感谢!
鉴于时间仓促、译者水平有限,译文中错误与不妥之处在所难免,敬祈广大读者批评指正,不胜感谢。
前 言
在高频上对于非线性电子元器件表征、建模和设计的严谨而实用的理论框架的需求已经是刻不容缓的事实了。通信革命正无情地迫使有源器件进入越来越强的非线性工作区工作。为了节省功率,延长电池寿命,且使冷却设备最小化,人们不得不追求更高的效率以应对越来越严峻的压力与挑战。所谓的非线性意味着必须研发新的测量仪器设备、新的模型和新的设计方法学,这些远远超越了线性S参数的框架。可喜的是,如今有了一种可交互操作并将这项难题无缝地组合于一体的新规范,这种规范称为X参数 ,而X参数正是本书所论及的全部内容。
本书将对X参数做综合性介绍。本书的目标是面向具有较广基础知识的读者。这是一项相当具有挑战性的任务。本书面向微波工程师、器件模型工程师和科学家,开发仿真算法的CAE(计算机辅助工程)专家,以及研发用于非线性宽范围表征应用的新一代高速仪器的微波及RF的专业人士。
X参数这种内在的多个学科的特性是让我们试图吸引更广大读者的主要原因。过去几年由产业界采纳的基于X参数的多种实用解决方案都与这些领域有关。考虑到读者的多样性,我们选择了这样一种顺序来引入主题:以众所周知的时不变线性理论,即S参数的简要回顾作为本书的开篇,选择为多数读者所熟悉的背景来介绍更多的新概念,这对于本书的其他读者来说将是有益的。第2章介绍X参数,它是基于在谐波频率栅格(grid)上定义的多音非线性频谱映射来展开的,并对有关时不变的应用与受限情况进行了详尽描述。第3章对X参数的简便且实用的形式进行了一般的简化讨论。这种简便形式是基于应用频谱线性理论的,即一种有用的近似方法,从而大大降低了X参数形式的复杂性而又能满足实际应用。进而对这些最简单的X参数举出几个实例说明其功能、实用性和相对简单性。在频谱近似中,对共轭项的来源也进行了讨论。第4章集中介绍如何测量X参数,以及从电路仿真的广度如何计算(生成)X参数,还对主要仪器——非线性矢量网络分析仪(NVNA)的功能框图进行了介绍,并对使用脉冲发生器相位参考来获得关键X参数量值的测量用途做了评述。由于在处理许多混频器设计中,带相位的互调分量以及功率放大器作为输入功率,和由于大的失配产生的反射电气信号返回进入该器件所产生的大信号响应,都必须涉及,这超过了第3章中频谱线性化的近似,故第5章论及将X参数的处理扩展到多个大信号与多个端口。最后,第6章将X参数的处理扩展到动态“记忆效应”,例如,在实际高速器件对宽带通信信号的响应中呈现的重要现象。本书附有若干个附录,包括了对书中某些部分的进一步阐述、公式推演、标准符号和标记的定义等,可作为在此领域的科技工作者的参考资料。
本书也适合作为电气工程专业高年级本科生或研究生教材。事实上,我们认为:将X参数作为电气工程总课程的标准内容组成部分非常必要。本书对于跨越电气专业,致力于对各种非线性系统的应用进行严谨而实用的基础研究的应用数学家和应用科学家也有很好的参考价值。
本书读者所需的背景知识包括一学年的微积分学、基本电路理论和简单的傅里叶分析。对于具有电子功率放大器与晶体管、S参数基础、差分方程、电路设计和仿真初步知识的读者,本书会非常有帮助。

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