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黄仁宇作品系列:万历十五年【荐书联盟推荐】

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黄仁宇作品系列:万历十五年【荐书联盟推荐】

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《万历十五年》自出版后即成为一本长销不衰的经典历史著作。书名虽为万历十五年,然而其内容却俯瞰了整个明朝的兴衰,并且告诉我们与以往历史书中不同的海瑞、张居正……读黄仁宇的书,你会深刻体会“历史给人以智慧”!
《万历十五年》(1587, a Year of No Significance)是黄仁宇的一部明史研究专著。1587年,在西欧历史上为西班牙舰队全部出动征英的前一年。当年,在明朝发生了若干为历史学家所易于忽视的事件。这些事件,表面看来虽似末端小节,但实质上却是以前发生大事的症结,也是将在以后掀起波澜的机缘。其间关系因果,恰为历史的重点。其著作主旨在书中末段看出:“当一个人口众多的国家,各人行动全凭儒家简单粗浅而又无法固定的原则所限制,而法律又缺乏创造性,则其社会发展的程度,必然受到限制。即便是宗旨善良,也不能补助技术之不及。”

Content Description

明万历十五年,即公元1587年,在中国历史上原本是极其普通的年份。作者以该年前后的史事件及生活在那个时代的人物为中心,抽丝剥茧,梳理了中国传统社会管理层面存在的种种问题,并在此基础上探索现代中国应当涉取的经验和教训。作者黄仁宇以其“大历史”观而闻名于世,《黄仁宇作品系列:万历十五年》中这一观念初露头角,“叙事不妨细致,但是结论却要看远不顾近”。《黄仁宇作品系列:万历十五年》自80年代初在中国大陆出版以来,好评如潮,在学术界和文化界有广泛的影响。
《黄仁宇作品系列:万历十五年》,意在说明16世纪中国社会的传统的历史背景,也就是尚未与世界潮流冲突时的侧面形态。有了这样一个历史的大失败,就可以保证冲突既开,恢复故态决无可能,因之而给中国留下了一个翻天覆地、彻底创造历史的机缘。
Author Description

黄仁宇(1918-2000),生于湖南长沙,1936年入天津南开大学电机工程系就读。抗日战争爆发后,先在长沙《抗日战报》工作,后来进入国民党成都中央军校,1950年退伍。
其后赴美攻读历史,获学士(1954)、硕士(1957)、博士(1964)学位。曾任哥伦比亚大学访问副教授(1967)及哈佛大学东亚研究所研究员(1970)。参与《明代名人传》及《剑桥中国史》的集体研究工作。
Catalogue

自序
第一章 万历皇帝
第二章 首辅申时行
第三章 世间已无张居正
第四章 活着的祖宗
第五章 海瑞——古怪的模范官僚
第六章 戚继光——孤独的将领
第七章 李贽——自相冲突的哲学家
参考书目
附录一
附录二
《万历十五年》和我的“大”历史观
Book Abstract

公元1587年,在中国为明万历十五年,论干支则为丁亥,属猪。当日四海升平,全年并无大事可叙,纵是气候有点反常,夏季北京缺雨,五六月间时疫流行,旱情延及山东,南直隶却又因降雨过多而患水,入秋之后山西又有地震,但这种小灾小患,以我国幅员之大,似乎年年在所不免。只要小事未曾酿成大灾,也就无关宏旨。总之,在历史上,万历十五年实为平平淡淡的一年。
既然如此,著者又何以把《万历十五年》题作书名来写这样一本专著呢?
1587年,在西欧历史上为西班牙舰队全部出动征英的前一年。当年,在我国的朝廷上发生了若干为历史学家所易于忽视的事件。这些事件,表面看来虽似末端小节,但实质上却是以前发生大事的症结,也是将在以后掀起波澜的机缘。其问关系因果,恰为历史的重点。
由于表面看来是末端小节,我们的论述也无妨从小事开始。
这一年阳历的3月2日,北京城内街道两边的冰雪尚未解冻。天气虽然不算酷寒,但树枝还没有发芽,不是户外活动的良好季节。然而在当日的午餐时分,大街上却熙熙攘攘。原来是消息传来,皇帝陛下要举行午朝大典,文武百官不敢怠慢,立即奔赴皇城。乘轿的高级官员,还有机会在轿中整理冠带;徒步的低级官员,从六部衙门到皇城,路程逾一里有半,抵达时喘息未定j也就顾不得再在外表上细加整饰了。
站在大明门前守卫的禁卫军,事先也没有接到有关的命令,但看到大批盛装的官员来临,也就以为确系举行大典,因而未加询问。进大明门即为皇城。文武百官看到端门午门之前气氛平静,城楼上下也无朝会的迹象,既无几案,站队点名的御史和御前侍卫“大汉将军”也不见踪影,不免心中揣测,互相询问:所谓午朝是否讹传?
近侍宦官宣布了确切消息,皇帝陛下并未召集午朝,官员们也就相继退散。惊魂既定,这空穴来风的午朝事件不免成为交谈议论的话题:这谣传从何而来,全体官员数以千计而均受骗上当,实在令人大惑不解。
对于这一颇带戏剧性的事件,万历皇帝本来大可付诸一笑。但一经考虑到此事有损朝廷体统,他就决定不能等闲视之。就在官员们交谈议论之际,一道圣旨已由执掌文书的宦官传到内阁,大意是:今日午间之事,实与礼部及鸿胪寺职责攸关。礼部掌拟具仪注,鸿胪寺掌领督演习。该二衙门明知午朝大典已经多年未曾举行,决无在仪注未备之时,仓卒传唤百官之理。是以其他衙门既已以讹传误,该二衙门自当立即阻止。既未阻止,即系玩忽职守,着从尚书、寺卿以下官员各罚俸两月,并仍须查明究系何人首先讹传具奏。
礼部的调查毫无结果,于是只能回奏:当时众口相传,首先讹传者无法查明。为了使这些昏昏然的官员知所儆戒,皇帝把罚俸的范围由礼部、鸿胪寺扩大到了全部在京供职的官员。
……
Introduction

本书的英文版书名为“1587,A Year of No Significance”,作者的署名为Ray Huang,1981年美国耶鲁大学出版。初稿是用英文写的,写成后,出于向国内读者求教之忱,乃由笔者本人译为中文,并作某些修改润色。
我对明史感觉兴趣,说来话长。1959年,我在密支根大学历史系读书,选定了“明代的漕运”作为博士论文的题目。这一研究过程花了5年。论文完成后,算是对明代的财政税收制度有了一知半解,然而遗留的问题仍然不少。为了解决自己的困惑,并图对明代的财政与税收窥其全豹,乃开始收集材料,撰写"Taxation and Governmental Finance in 16th Century Ming-China”一书。当时正值台北影印出版了《明实录》,此书为明代史料的渊薮,自然在所必读。全书133册,又无索引可资利用,所以只好硬着头皮,在教书之余每周阅读一册。这一走马观花式的阅览就花去了两年半。除此而外,参考奏疏笔记、各地方志,搜寻国内外有关的新旧著作,费时更多。此书从计划撰写到杀青定稿,历时7年,1974年由英国剑桥大学出版。
结论从材料中来。多年以来摸索于材料之中,我对明史中的若干方面形成了自己的初步看法,开始摆脱了人云亦云的束缚。这些看法容或有所不当,但多少总可以有助于学术界的探讨。
比如,过去关于明史的叙述,几乎无不有“税重民穷”的说法。如果意在说明当日的官僚贪污百出,无力的百姓被摊派的赋役过重,富者愈富,贫者愈贫,这可以言之成理。要是认为全国税收总额过高而导致百姓贫困,则与事实有所出入。16世纪末,全国田赋额最重的为南直隶苏州府,约占农村收入的20%。此外各府县一般都在10%以下,其中又有轻重的不同,山东曹县全县的赋役约占农村收入的9%,去苏州不远的溧阳县,情形就更为奇怪,约在1~5%之间。而以比例而言,与此同时的日本大名政权,税额占收入的50%。以总额而言,17世纪末期的英国,人口为500万,税收每年竟达700万英镑,折合约银2000余万两,和人口为30倍的中国大体相埒。据此而作进一步探索,可知“民穷”的根本原因不在国家的赋税过重,而端在法律的腐败和政府的低能。国家的税率低,受惠者并非农民,只是鼓励了大小地主加重剥削以及官僚乡里额外加征。
中国幅员广大,情形复杂。明朝采取严格的中央集权,施政方针不着眼于提倡扶助先进的经济,以增益全国财富,而是保护落后的经济,以均衡的姿态维持王朝的安全。这种情形,在世界史中实属罕见,在中国历史中也以明代为甚,而其始作俑者厥为明太祖朱元璋。下面一例可以作为管中窥豹。洪武二十一年(1388),朱元璋亲自指示,让人民纳税实物不入仓库,直接供应于军士的家庭,军士则不再发给军饷,并规定先在应天府抽派若干税民,和金吾卫的五千军士对口。试验一年以后,朱元璋认为成绩良好,乃通令全国一体施行。这一办法之脱离实际,窒碍难通,自不待言而自明,于是只好虎头蛇尾,销声匿迹。这种安排虽然不再执行,但与之相适应的其他经济措施,则依然危害极大。如果军需税收总收总发,国内的交通通讯必然相应而有较大的进步,次之则银行业、保险业就会应客观的需要而产生,商业组织和法律也会有所发展。各地区既互通有无,以后就可以分工合作,各按其本地的特殊情况而发展其生产技术。西欧各国在14世纪已经朝着这一方向前进,日本在德川幕府末期,亦复如是。而明代的财政税收制度则和民间经济的发展相脱节。万历二十年(1592),北京的宛平县知县沈榜声称,他每年要向27个不同的机构交款,总数则不出白银2000两。与此相似,全国布满了这短距离的补给线,此来彼往,侧面收受,既无架构,而提出的统计数字,经常为一纸具文,以致发生了上述税率参差不一的现象。这种维护落后的农业经济、不愿发展商业及金融的做法,正是中国在世界范围内由先进的汉唐演变为落后的明清的主要原因。1972年,我去英国剑桥,参加李约瑟博士主持的《中国科学技术史》的工作,历时一年,兹后我又几次有机会旧地重游,向李公学习。上述看法,我们已写为“The Naturle of ChineseSociety:A Technical Interpretation”一文,曾在罗马和香港两处发表。李公1974年4月30日在香港演讲,也以此文为讲稿,后节译为中文,刊载于香港的《七十年代》杂志。
我们也很难同意这样一种看法,即认为在明代万历年间,中国的封建经济已向资本主义经济进展。资本主义是一种组织,一种系统。即马克思在《资本论》第二卷中论述资本主义的流通方式,其公式亦为C—M—C,即商品(Commodity)交换为货币(Money),货币又再交换为商品,川流不息。但是货币是一种公众的制度,它把原来属于公众的权力授予私人。私人资本积累愈多,它操纵公众生活的权力也愈大。同时,商业资本又是工业资本的先驱,商业有了充分的发展,工业的发展才能同样地增进。这是欧美资本主义发展的特征。中国的传统政治既无此组织能力,也决不愿私人财富扩充至不易控制的地步,为王朝的安全之累。
明代张瀚②所著的《松窗梦语》中,记载了他的家庭以机杼起家。中外治明史的学者,对这段文字多加引用,以说明当时工商业的进步及资本主义的萌芽。其实细阅全文,即知张瀚所叙其祖先夜梦神人授银一锭、因以购机织布云云,乃在于宣扬因果报应及富贵由命的思想。姑不论神人授银的荒诞不经,即以一锭银而论,也不足以购买织机,所以此说显然不能作为信史。同时代的书法家王世懋,在《二酉委谈》中提到江西景德镇烧造瓷器,火光烛天,因而称之为“四时雷电镇”。当代好几位学者据此而认为此即工业超时代发展的征象。实则王世懋的本意,是在于从堪舆家的眼光出发,不满当地居民穿凿地脉,以致没有人登科中举;而后来时局不靖,停窑三月,即立竿见影,有一名秀才乡试中式。
如是等等的问题,其症结到底何在,这是研治明史者所不能不认真考虑的。笔者以为,中国二千年来,以道德代替法制,至明代而极,这就是一切问题的症结。写作本书的目的,也重在说明这一看法。这一看法,在拙著《财政史》中已肇其端。本书力图使历史专题的研究大众化,因而采取了传记体的铺叙方式。书中所叙,不妨称为一个大失败的总记录。因为叙及的主要人物,有万历皇帝朱翊钧,大学士张居正、申时行,南京都察院都御史海瑞,蓟州总兵官戚继光,以知府身分挂冠而去的名士李贽,他们或身败,或名裂,没有一个人功德圆满。即便是侧面提及的人物,如冯保、高拱、张鲸、郑贵妃、福王常洵、俞大猷、卢镗、刘綖,也统统没有好结果。这种情形,断非个人的原因所得以解释,而是当日的制度已至山穷水尽,上自天子,下至庶民,无不成为牺牲品而遭殃受祸。
在上述前提之下,对具体历史人物的具体评论,就难免有与国内外明史研究专家有出入之处。例如万历皇帝,历来均以为昏庸,读者在读毕本书以后,也许会认为笔者同情这位皇帝。如果真有这样的批评,笔者将不拟多作无益的辩解。因为本书论述万历,本在于说明皇帝的职位是一种应社会需要而产生的机构,而每一个皇帝又都是一个个人。又比如海瑞,这也是一个容易惹起是非的题目,15年前的一段公案,至今人们记忆犹新。在本书中专设海瑞一章,并不是要在这段已经了结的公案再来画蛇添足,而意在向读者介绍当日地方政府的一些形态。有关16世纪地方行政的资料不多,沈榜的《宛署杂记》所载,为京师的情形而非一般概况,顾炎武的《天下郡国利病书》过于琐碎,唐鹤征的叙南直隶、归有光的叙浙江长兴县,也都有欠完整。相形之下,海瑞的遗墨,涉及当日地方政府的各个方面,最具参考价值。研究海瑞其人其文,可以使我们对当日的情形有更具体的了解。当然,问题还远不止此,比如何以万历的立储问题业已解决而争执却绵延不断?何以岛国日本可以侵犯中国而中国却不能远征日本?何以当日的西欧已经用火器改进战术而中国还在修筑万里长城?何以人人都说海瑞是好官而他却偏偏屡遭排挤?这些具体问题,无疑和上述总的症结密不可分,然而却各有其特殊的原因。笔者写作此书时,虽已不同于过去的暗中摸索,但下笔时仍然颇费踌躇。书中所提出的答案,均属一得之见,敬请读者批评指正。
中国的过去,禁忌特多,所以说话作文时有隐晦,或指彼而喻此,或借古以讽今,这在明朝人更为惯技。本书论述明朝时事,举凡有所议论臧否,都是针对16世纪的历史而发的。如果我要对今人今事有所议论,自当秉笔直书,决不愿学明朝人的办法,否则就是违反了自己写书的目的。当然,另一方面,以古为鉴,今人也未尝不能得到若干启示。这本《万历十五年》,意在说明16世纪中国社会的传统的历史背景,也就是尚未与世界潮流冲突时的侧面形态。有了这样一个历史的大失败,就可以保证冲突既开,恢复故态决无可能,因之而给中国留下了一个翻天覆地、彻底创造历史的机缘。
本书由英文译为中文,因为国内外情况的差别,加之所译又是自己的著作,所以这一翻译实际上是一种译写。笔者离祖国已逾30年,很少阅读中文和使用中文写作的机会,而30年来的祖国语言又有了不少发展,隔膜更多。幸经中国社会科学院文学研究所沈玉成先生将中文稿仔细阅读一过,作了文字上的润色,又承中华书局编辑部傅璇琮先生关注,经常就各种技术问题与笔者书函磋商。所以,本书与读者见面时,文字方面已较原稿流畅远甚。其有创意遣辞方面根本性的不妥,当然仍应由笔者负责。又,廖沫沙兄为笔者年轻时的患难之交,蒙他在百忙中挥翰题签,为本书生色不少。谨此一并致衷心的谢意。
黄仁宇
1981年1月于美国

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