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传播与劝服:关于态度转变的心理学研究

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传播与劝服:关于态度转变的心理学研究

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卡尔·霍夫兰是美国实验心理学家,是将实验心理学引入传播学研究领域的第一人,毕生研究人的心理对人的行为的影响、劝服与态度的关系、态度的形成与转变等。第二次世界大战期间,他应聘担任美国陆军总部心理实验室主任,率领专家小组指导和研究美军的思想训练计划,研究军内教育电影对提高士气所起的作用。1946年到1961年间,霍夫兰回到耶鲁大学,主持“传播与态度改变计划”,完成了超过50项实验,出版了一批关于态度问题的耶鲁丛书。1953年出版的《传播与劝服》一书,描述了这些研究的理论框架和结果。

霍夫兰对传播学最突出的贡献,一是将心理实验方法引入传播学研究;二是通过研究揭示了传播效果形成的条件性和复杂性,对否定早期的“子弹论”效果观起到了很大作用。霍夫兰研究中提出的一些概念,如可信度、对宣传的免疫力、恐惧诉求、休眠效果等等,都是引导后来研究的起点。《传播学史》一书的作者罗杰斯认为,霍夫兰的研究直接影响了传播研究对传播社会效果的重视。霍夫兰的追随者、当代劝服研究的代表人物麦奎尔曾说,后续有大量有关劝服研究的出版物,从中仍时常看到霍夫兰的影子。总之,霍夫兰等人的研究项目既是现代态度改变研究的开端,又是大众传播理论若干重大贡献的渊源。
Author Description

卡尔·霍夫兰(1912—1961),美国著名实验心理学家,也是宣传与传播研究的杰出人物。二战期间和战后,霍夫兰和一批心理学家进行了大量实验,对态度与劝服进行了细致研究,提出了众多影响颇大的理论,以他们的研究为基础,逐渐形成了传播学的“耶鲁学派”。

欧文·贾尼斯(1918-1990),美国心理学家,致力于政策制定的心理学分析、危机管理等方面的研究。贾尼斯于1967年获美国科学促进联合会颁发的社会心理学奖,1981年获美国心理学会颁发的杰出科学贡献奖,并获美国实验心理学协会1991年度杰出科学家奖。贾尼斯因其提出的团体迷思理论而闻名。

哈罗德·凯利(1921—2003),美国社会心理学家,在心理学和社会学领域都有很大影响,主要贡献集中于群体社会心理学、归因理论、人际关系等方面。1971年获美国心理学会颁发的杰出科学贡献奖,1978年当选为美国国家科学院院士。
Catalogue

前言
第一章导论
第二章传播者的可信度
第三章恐惧诉求
第四章说服性观点的组织
第五章成员身份及抗拒影响
第六章个性和说服敏感度
第七章通过积极参与获得信念
第八章意见改变的记忆
第九章总结与新问题
索引
译后记
Book Abstract

从行为反应到主体介入(代译序)
陈卫星
行为主义思潮曾经是20世纪初期美国社会科学领域实证主义方法论的源头之一。在实验心理学领域,此前的学术方法是用内省的方式来研究意识,在方法论上的特征,或强调自我控制,如W.冯特;或追溯心理过程,如E.B.铁钦纳;或主张冥思苦想,如W.詹姆斯。直到法国实证主义运动创始人A.孔德重新把知识的社会性定义为可以客观观察的知识,这才使得行为主义心理学问世并且把本能、情绪和思维作为可以进行客观研究的对象。
美国学者霍夫兰在传播学学术史上的主要贡献是在第二次世界大战期间主持了美国军方牵头的一个庞大的说服实验项目,从而在心理学层面上为信息传播的效果研究提供了学理基础,并在战后延续的耶鲁大学“传播与态度变化耶鲁项目”中把这项研究持续下去,积累为传播学的一份重要学术遗产。
作为传播学领域心理学研究方向的重要创始人,霍夫兰曾师从著名的行为主义人类学家C.L.赫尔,但这不排除他在后来的研究中充分汲取精神分析学和群体心理学的概念,从而把人在接受信息之后的态度和意见方面的变化作为主要研究的问题。他通过设计的实验去验证概念化的假说,最终提炼出说服过程中导致态度变化的因变量。
霍夫兰的劝服研究始于耶鲁大学的人类关系研究所。这个学术机构主要从事有关青少年犯罪、交通事故、失业、精神健康、居住流动和司法管理等社会问题的跨学科研究。社会问题似乎从来都不是单一的,而美国学者较早从非单一的视角来考察和验证问题,当然是试图寻觅更有效的解决思路,因为跨学科的方法论可以提供一个更宽泛的谱系。霍夫兰的研究特色就在于始终关注理论问题和基础研究,同时借鉴多个学科领域的理论成果,并重视用控制实验的方法来检验命题。
美国传播学家罗杰斯在谈到霍夫兰的说服实验时指出:“它是有意图的传播,是由某种信源所作出的单向尝试,以便在接受者方面造成效果。但是由于说服通常是通过人际传播渠道而进行的,有些来回往返的相互作用便往往发生在说服过程之中。”[[美]E.M.罗杰斯:《传播学史:一种传记式的方法》,378页,上海,上海译文出版社,2002。]如何从信息传播的源头和归宿来寻求信息的自变量所产生的因变量,即便在信息变幻的今天也仍然是分析各种传播议题的基础。
信息自变量的考证疑是霍夫兰及其研究团队的学术贡献。如果说说服的原因来自于作为自变量的信息生成,那么说服的意图是可以从传播者的身份属性、情境位置和事态的重要性当中去体会和领会;信源的吸引力则来自内容本身的号召力,包括其趣味性的喜闻乐见、再现性的个性光晕或逻辑性的懈可击;至于信源和信宿的相似性是要缩短两者之间的心理距离,从而产生互动的潜在空间;信源的力量则完全是社会氛围的产物或时代精神的体现;信源的可信度要归结于传播者的声誉、公信力和权威性以及信息源的公平性和可信赖度等等。
从美国传播学史的发展阶段来看,霍夫兰的劝服研究其实处在“有限效果论”的阶段。大众传播社会中的受众事实上是数以匿名方式存在的个体,他们对外部世界的知觉要受到个体差异和社会环境的暗示,不能完全表现自身的理性和思维活动,从而限制了媒介改变态度的力量。那么,是否可以通过对信息的直接接触来获取一种认知中的选择性?这就意味着什么形式或什么程序的信息传播可能产生或打破认知不协调的困境,从而为后来的信息制作者和传播者提供一套可进行心理学解码的配方。
据说,霍夫兰及其研究团队的实验对象中,有三分之一到二分之一的人受到单一接触一个说服性信息的影响。所以,学术界有人批评霍夫兰以及他的研究团队是通过人工环境来控制外部变量和操纵独立变量。也有人指出,作为一种实验形态的研究,一种适于某特定媒介内容、在数量较小的或者同质化的人群中的即时效果,不能推导出数量巨大、异质化的人群使用所有媒介所累积的影响。但霍夫兰及其研究团队对信息变量的定位研究还是为今天留下可以验证的概念。
正是因为劝服研究是一个系列过程,可接受性成为过程的最终和唯一目标。比如说,可理解性是定位受众的基本前提,也是划分大众传播和非大众传播的信息有效性的指标;论证信息态势的数量指标及其抽样标准还是产生说服力的基本框架;各种同质或同类信息之间的内部补偿成为从不同角度阐释信息的媒介化素材;产生恐惧的信息向来被认为是具有社会安全预警性质,但这类信息的风险在于其自身的量变可以直接突破社会安全阀而难以收场;对于一个事件或一种观点,两种或两种以上的说法有助于培育社会理性的开放和宽容,但只提供一种说法更容易满足传播者的权力意志或自以为是,赌注在于如何测定受众的理解能力及其创作性质的表达;至于信息出现的秩序、信息难易程度的递增,当然是体现将意外带回规范的信息把控节奏,类似于今天的危机公关或舆论引导。所以,在这个意义上,信息的冗余度和重复频率其实从来都在传播者的预算当中。
值得我们尊重的是,霍夫兰及其研究团队在那个年代就对信息改变态度和意见的心理学效果进行盘根问底地研究并设计了研究量表。从社会心理学发展的后续进程来看,源于分析有限情境所发生的效果模型的建构,总是要力图超越这种情境来延续科学探索的逻辑。问题在于,随着信息传播技术的不断更新,人们的信息近用(access)在不断发生变化。比如说媒体的界面从大众到分众的扩散逻辑,媒介渠道的分化挑战信息认同的同化效果;同时作为受众和传播者的个体与媒体的关系距离的嬗变,诱导出受众在自我评估和身份(性别)建构中的激发机制。传播者往往难以预测的是,如果信息对受众产生不适应,其结果究竟是受众在态度上更加顺应信息的说服逻辑还是通过自我强化对此予以消解或抵制。
霍夫兰及其研究团队的理论成果告诉我们,信源的可信度和内容的接受度一旦不再保持正向比例关系时,有可能在受众当中产生三种变化:或改变对传播的态度,或改变对传播者的态度,或改变对传播者的角色认知。这些变化的实质在于信源和内容在接受过程中的分离。如果从信息传播技术的日新月异的演变现状来重新思考霍夫兰的这个研究成果,那就是由不同的媒介在塑造不同的意识和观念。今天的信息有更多的自由连接方式、更丰富的体验过程差异和更聚合的非中心化结构。和一个含而不露的做法相比,一个明确的信息立论会同时面对横向的视角差异和纵向的逻辑同一的挑战。但是,如果我们还是坚持把信息传播的使命还原到人与人的主体关系的建构,霍夫兰及其研究团队的假设依然有效,“即那些最想要维持自己群体身份的人,最能抵御违反群体标准的传播[翟老师您好,这句话中缺一个“的”,改为下面的译法应该更通顺些,“即那些最想要维持自己群体身份的人,最能抵御违反群体标准的传播”。
这是我们翻译中出现的问题,与陈老师关。
原书稿223页的这句译文,也应该改为,“即那些最想要维持自己群体身份的人,最能抵御违反群体标准的传播”。
]”[ 本书222页。]。也许,正是因为人们的身份认同的差异,传播的游戏会永远持续下去。
是为序。

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